Foreign relations of Indonesia
This article is part of a series on the |
Politics of Indonesia |
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Since independence, Indonesian foreign relations have adhered to a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers. During the presidency of Sukarno, Indonesia's foreign relations were marked by engagement with other newly independent nations in Asia and Africa, as exemplified by the Bandung Conference, the subsequent foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement and a confrontational attitude towards Western powers, justified by a belief in the CONEFO and opposition to what Sukarno termed as NEKOLIM (Neocolonialism and Imperialism).[1]
After a US-backed ouster of Sukarno and left-wing elements in 1965, Indonesian foreign policy underwent a major shift under the "New Order" government, as President Suharto moved away from the stridently anti-Western, anti-American posturing that characterised the latter part of the Sukarno era. Following Suharto's ouster in 1998, Indonesia's government has preserved the broad outlines of Suharto's independent, moderate foreign policy. Preoccupation with domestic problems has not prevented successive presidents from travelling abroad.
Indonesia's relations with the international community were strained as a result of its invasion of neighbouring East Timor in December 1975, the subsequent annexation and occupation, the independence referendum in 1999, and the resulting violence afterwards. As one of the founding members of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), established in 1967, and also as the largest country in Southeast Asia, Indonesia has put ASEAN as the cornerstone of its foreign policy and outlook. After the transformation from Suharto's regime to a relatively open and democratic country in the 21st century, Indonesia today exercises its influence to promote co-operation, development, democracy, security, peace and stability in the region through its leadership in ASEAN.[2] Currently, Israel is the only UN member state that does not have formal diplomatic relations with Indonesia, although they maintain informal relations.
Indonesia managed to play a role as a peacemaker in the Cambodia–Thailand conflict over the Preah Vihear temple. Indonesia and other ASEAN member countries collectively have also played a role in encouraging the government of Myanmar to open up its political system and introduce other reforms more quickly.[2]
Given its geographic and demographic size, rising capabilities and diplomatic initiatives, scholars have classified Indonesia as one of Asia-Pacific's middle powers.[3]
Historical issues
[edit]The foreign policy of Indonesia has evolved over time and has been shaped by various factors such as its historical context, geographic location, national interests, and leadership. Here is an overview of the historical context of Indonesia's foreign policy:
- Founding Principles: Indonesia's foreign policy is rooted in the country's founding principles of Pancasila, which emphasizes peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of other countries.[4]
- Western New Guinea. The western part of New Guinea was under Dutch colonial rule and known as "West Irian." When Indonesia gained independence from the Netherlands in 1945, the Dutch retained control over West Irian, but Indonesia claimed it. The United Nations supervised the transfer of West Irian to Indonesia in 1963. The region officially became a part of Indonesia in 1969 through a UN-sanctioned referendum known as the Act of Free Choice.[5]
- Non-Aligned Movement: After gaining independence from Dutch colonial rule in 1945, Indonesia played a prominent role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The NAM was a group of countries that chose not to align with any major power bloc during the Cold War, advocating for a neutral stance and promoting cooperation among developing nations.[6]
- Regional Leadership: Indonesia has sought to establish itself as a leader in the Southeast Asian region. It was one of the founding members of the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) in 1967 and has been actively involved in regional initiatives to promote peace, stability, and economic integration in Southeast Asia.[7]
- "Free and Active" Foreign Policy: In the 1950s and 1960s, under the leadership of President Sukarno, Indonesia pursued a "free and active" foreign policy. This policy aimed at asserting Indonesia's independence and taking an active role in global affairs by participating in international organizations, supporting decolonization movements, and advocating for the rights of developing nations.[8]
- Post-Suharto Era: Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesia underwent political and economic reforms. This period saw a shift in foreign policy priorities, focusing more on economic development, regional cooperation, and democracy promotion. Indonesia also embraced a more pragmatic approach in its foreign relations.[9]
- East Timor: In 1975, shortly after East Timor declared independence from Portuguese colonial rule, Indonesia invaded and occupied the territory. The occupation lasted for 24 years and was marked by widespread human rights abuses, violence, and resistance from the East Timorese people. The international community largely condemned the occupation. Various human rights organizations and activists put pressure on Indonesia to leave. In 1999, Indonesia agreed to hold a UN-sponsored referendum to determine its political status. The majority of the East Timorese people voted for independence, leading to widespread violence and destruction orchestrated by pro-Indonesia militias. International peacekeeping forces, led by Australia, restored order. East Timor finally achieved independence in 2002.[10]
- Territorial Integrity: Indonesia places great importance on its territorial integrity and has been firm in its stance against any threats to its sovereignty. It has been involved in various territorial disputes, including those in the South China Sea, and has sought to resolve them through peaceful means, including diplomatic negotiations.[11]
- Counterterrorism and Maritime Security: Indonesia has actively cooperated with regional and international partners in combating terrorism and ensuring maritime security. It has been affected by terrorist attacks in the past and has taken steps to enhance intelligence-sharing, border control, and counterterrorism efforts.[12]
- Economic Diplomacy: With the world's fourth-largest population and a growing economy, Indonesia has focused on economic diplomacy to attract foreign investment, promote trade relations, and strengthen economic ties with other countries. It has pursued partnerships with both developed and developing nations to foster economic growth and development.[13]
- Climate Change and Environmental Issues: As a country highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, Indonesia has been actively engaged in international efforts to address environmental issues. It has been a vocal advocate for sustainable development, forest conservation, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[14]
- Global and Regional Multilateralism: Indonesia actively participates in various multilateral organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). It has sought to contribute to global peace, security, and development by engaging in multilateral dialogues and fostering regional cooperation.[15]
Significant international memberships
[edit]Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
[edit]A cornerstone of Indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),[16] of which it was a founding member in 1967 with Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. Since then, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia also have joined ASEAN. While organised to promote shared economic, social, and cultural goals, ASEAN acquired a security dimension after Vietnam's liberation of Cambodia in 1979; this aspect of ASEAN expanded with the establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, which comprises 22 countries, including the US.
The Indonesian capital Jakarta is also the seat of ASEAN Secretariat. Other than serving their diplomatic missions for Indonesia, numerous of foreign embassies and diplomatic mission in Jakarta are also accredited to ASEAN. The presence of the ASEAN Headquarters has made Jakarta a diplomatic hub in Southeast Asia in some regards.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Indonesia's domestic troubles distracted it from ASEAN matters and consequently reduced its influence within the organisation. However, after the political and economic transformation, from the turmoil of 1998 Reformasi to the relatively open and democratic civil society with rapid economic growth in the 2010s, Indonesia returned to the region's diplomatic stage by assuming its leadership role in ASEAN in 2011. Indonesia is viewed to have weight, international legitimacy and global appeal to draw support and attention from around the world to ASEAN. Indonesia believes that ASEAN can contribute positively to the international community, by promoting economic development and co-operation, improving security, peace, the stability of ASEAN, and making the Southeast Asia region far from conflicts.[2]
Indonesia's bilateral relations with three neighbouring ASEAN members—Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam—are not without challenges. If not appropriately managed, it would result in mutual mistrust and suspicion, thus hindering bilateral and regional co-operation. In the era of rising Indonesia, which might assert its leadership role within ASEAN, the problem could become more significant. Nevertheless, the rise of Indonesia should be regarded in the sense of optimism. First, although Indonesia is likely to become assertive, the general tone of its foreign policy is mainly liberal and accommodating. The consolidation of the Indonesian democratic government played a key role and influence in ASEAN. The second, institutional web of ASEAN will sustain engagements and regular meetings between regional elites, thus deepening their mutual understanding and personal connections.[17]
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
[edit]Indonesia also was one of the founders of NAM and has taken moderate positions in its councils. As NAM Chairman in 1992–95, it led NAM positions away from the rhetoric of north–south confrontation, advocating the broadening of north–south co-operation instead in the area of development. Indonesia continues to be a prominent, and generally constructive, leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.[citation needed]
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
[edit]Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population and is a member of OIC. It carefully considers the interests of Islamic solidarity in its foreign policy decisions but generally has been an influence for moderation in the OIC.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
[edit]Indonesia has been a strong supporter of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Mainly through the efforts of President Suharto at the 1994 meeting in Indonesia, APEC members agreed to implement free trade in the region by 2010 for industrialised economies and 2020 for developing economies. As the largest economy in Southeast Asia, Indonesia also belongs to other economic groupings such as G20 and Developing 8 Countries (D-8).
G20 major economies
[edit]In 2008, Indonesia was admitted as a member of the G20, as the only ASEAN member state in the group.[18] Through its membership in the global economic powerhouse that accounted of 85% of the global economy,[18] Indonesia is keen to position itself as a mouthpiece for ASEAN countries, and as a representative of the developing world within the G20.[19] Bali, Indonesia had played host to the 2022 G20 Summit.
IGGI and CGI
[edit]After 1966, Indonesia welcomed and maintained close relations with the international donor community, particularly the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan, through the meetings of the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) and its successor, the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), which coordinated substantial foreign economic assistance. Problems in Timor and Indonesia's reluctance to implement economic reform at times complicated Indonesia's relationship with donors. In 1992 the IGGI aid coordination group ceased to meet and the coordination activities were transferred to meetings arranged by the World Bank through the CGI. The CGI, in turn, ceased activities in 2007 when the Indonesian government suggested that an internationally organised aid coordination program was no longer needed.
International disputes
[edit]Indonesia has numerous outlying and remote islands, some of which are inhabited by numerous pirate groups that regularly attack ships in the Strait of Malacca in the north,[20] and illegal fishing crews known for penetrating Australian and Filipino waters.[21] At the same time, Indonesian waters are the target of large-scale illegal fishing activities by foreign vessels.[22]
Indonesia has some present and historic territorial disputes with neighboring nations, such as:
- Ambalat Block in dispute with Malaysia (ongoing, overlapping EEZ line drawn by both countries)
- Ashmore and Cartier Islands in dispute with Australia (ongoing, the islands known by Indonesians as Pulau Pasir)
- Fatu Sinai Island (Pulau Batek) formerly disputed with East Timor (settled, East Timor ceded the island to Indonesia in August 2004)
- Miangas Island formerly disputed with Insular Government of the Philippine Islands (settled, part of Dutch East Indies and now Indonesia's territory as of Island of Palmas Case)
- Northern waters off Natuna Islands in dispute with China and Taiwan (ongoing; overlapping with Chinese nine-dash line claim)
- Sipadan and Ligitan Islands formerly disputed with Malaysia (settled, part of Malaysia's territory per International Court of Justice's decision in 2002)
Diplomatic relations
[edit]List of countries which Indonesia maintains diplomatic relations with:
# | Country | Date[23] |
---|---|---|
1 | Egypt | 10 June 1947[24] |
2 | Australia | 5 March 1949[25] |
3 | India | 16 April 1949[26] |
4 | Pakistan | 17 August 1949[27] |
5 | Belgium | 3 October 1949[28] |
6 | Netherlands | October 1949[29][30] |
7 | Philippines | 24 November 1949[31] |
8 | Greece | 28 November 1949[32] |
9 | Myanmar | 27 December 1949[33] |
10 | United Kingdom | 27 December 1949[34] |
11 | United States | 28 December 1949[35] |
12 | Italy | 29 December 1949[36] |
13 | France | 4 January 1950[37] |
14 | Norway | 25 January 1950 |
15 | Czech Republic | 2 February 1950 |
16 | Russia | 3 February 1950 |
17 | Denmark | 15 February 1950 |
18 | Romania | 20 February 1950 |
19 | Iraq | 27 February 1950[38] |
20 | Jordan | 27 February 1950[38] |
21 | Lebanon | 27 February 1950[38] |
22 | Syria | 27 February 1950[38] |
23 | Thailand | 7 March 1950[39] |
— | Holy See | 13 March 1950[40] |
24 | China | 13 April 1950 |
25 | Saudi Arabia | 1 May 1950[41] |
26 | Afghanistan | 20 May 1950[42] |
27 | Turkey | 30 July 1950[43] |
28 | Iran | 25 August 1950[44] |
29 | Portugal | 13 September 1950[45] |
30 | Sweden | 23 November 1950[46] |
31 | Switzerland | 2 November 1951[47][48] |
32 | Luxembourg | 8 January 1952[49] |
33 | Germany | 25 June 1952[50] |
34 | Sri Lanka | 6 August 1952[51] |
35 | Canada | 23 August 1952[52] |
36 | Brazil | March 1953 |
37 | Mexico | 6 April 1953 |
38 | Finland | 6 September 1954[53] |
39 | Serbia | 4 November 1954 |
40 | Austria | 20 November 1954[54] |
41 | Hungary | 26 June 1955[55] |
42 | Poland | 19 September 1955[56] |
43 | Vietnam | 30 December 1955[57] |
44 | Argentina | 30 July 1956[58] |
45 | Bulgaria | 20 September 1956[59] |
46 | Mongolia | 21 December 1956[60] |
47 | Sudan | 10 March 1957[61] |
48 | Laos | 30 August 1957[62] |
49 | Malaysia | 31 August 1957[63] |
50 | Japan | 20 January 1958 |
51 | Spain | 28 February 1958[64] |
52 | New Zealand | 28 June 1958 |
53 | Cambodia | 13 February 1959[65] |
54 | Ghana | 2 September 1959[66] |
55 | Venezuela | 10 October 1959 |
56 | Cuba | 22 January 1960 |
57 | Morocco | 19 April 1960[67] |
58 | Guinea | 27 April 1960[68] |
59 | Tunisia | 12 November 1960[69] |
60 | Somalia | 21 December 1960[70] |
61 | Nepal | 25 December 1960[71] |
62 | Ethiopia | 20 June 1961[72] |
63 | Yemen | 21 April 1962[73] |
64 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | 6 September 1963[74] |
65 | Algeria | 20 December 1963[75] |
66 | Bolivia | 1963 |
67 | Tanzania | 25 January 1964[76] |
68 | North Korea | 16 April 1964[77] |
69 | Nigeria | 5 March 1965[78] |
70 | Mali | 21 June 1965[79] |
71 | Albania | 18 August 1965[80] |
72 | Chile | 29 September 1965[81] |
73 | Uruguay | 11 October 1965[82] |
74 | Liberia | 1965[83] |
75 | Singapore | 7 September 1967[84] |
76 | Kuwait | 28 February 1968 |
77 | Bangladesh | 1 May 1972[85] |
78 | South Korea | 18 September 1973[86] |
79 | Trinidad and Tobago | 12 October 1973 |
80 | Fiji | 17 June 1974[87] |
81 | Maldives | 2 September 1974[88] |
82 | Madagascar | 13 December 1974[89] |
83 | Peru | 12 August 1975 |
84 | Papua New Guinea | 16 September 1975 |
85 | Zambia | 18 November 1975[90] |
86 | Suriname | 24 January 1976[91] |
87 | United Arab Emirates | 30 April 1976[92] |
88 | Qatar | 10 November 1976[93] |
89 | Bahrain | 1976[94] |
90 | Bahamas | 5 May 1977 |
91 | Oman | 5 December 1977[95] |
92 | Panama | 27 March 1979[96] |
93 | Djibouti | 6 September 1979[97] |
94 | Kenya | 15 October 1979[98] |
95 | Malta | 1 December 1979 |
96 | Samoa | 17 March 1980 |
97 | Ecuador | 29 April 1980 |
98 | Colombia | 15 September 1980 |
99 | Senegal | 3 October 1980[99] |
100 | Paraguay | 29 November 1981[100] |
101 | Jamaica | 17 December 1981 |
101 | Gambia | 30 May 1982[101] |
103 | Gabon | 3 June 1982[102] |
104 | Ivory Coast | 4 June 1982[103] |
105 | Comoros | 19 March 1983[104] |
106 | Mauritius | 27 May 1983[105] |
107 | Iceland | 13 June 1983 |
108 | Solomon Islands | 28 July 1983 |
109 | Brunei | 1 January 1984[106] |
110 | Rwanda | 16 January 1984[107] |
111 | Ireland | 4 September 1984 |
112 | Costa Rica | 9 January 1985 |
113 | Seychelles | 16 December 1985[96] |
114 | Zimbabwe | 14 August 1986[108] |
115 | Cyprus | 4 December 1987[109] |
116 | Nicaragua | 11 April 1988[110] |
117 | Burundi | 31 May 1988[111] |
118 | Uganda | 12 January 1989[112] |
— | State of Palestine | 19 October 1989 |
119 | Eswatini | 12 April 1991[113] |
120 | Namibia | 13 May 1991[114] |
121 | Federated States of Micronesia | 16 July 1991 |
122 | Mozambique | 4 October 1991 |
123 | Libya | 17 October 1991 |
124 | Grenada | 28 February 1992 |
125 | Guatemala | 29 April 1992[96] |
126 | Ukraine | 11 June 1992 |
127 | Cameroon | 16 June 1992[115] |
128 | Uzbekistan | 23 June 1992[116] |
129 | Burkina Faso | 8 August 1992[117] |
130 | Croatia | 2 September 1992 |
131 | Armenia | 22 September 1992 |
132 | Azerbaijan | 24 September 1992[118] |
133 | Slovenia | 12 October 1992[96] |
134 | Turkmenistan | 10 December 1992[55] |
135 | Slovakia | 1 January 1993 |
136 | Georgia | 25 January 1993 |
137 | Moldova | 12 February 1993[55] |
138 | Kyrgyzstan | 5 April 1993[119] |
139 | Marshall Islands | 21 May 1993 |
140 | North Macedonia | 23 May 1993 |
141 | Kazakhstan | 2 June 1993[120] |
142 | Belarus | 18 June 1993 |
143 | Estonia | 5 July 1993[55] |
144 | Lithuania | 15 July 1993[121] |
145 | Eritrea | 2 August 1993[122] |
146 | Latvia | 25 August 1993[55] |
147 | Lesotho | 4 November 1993[123] |
148 | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 30 November 1993 |
149 | Saint Lucia | 2 February 1994 |
150 | Benin | 10 March 1994[124] |
151 | Bosnia and Herzegovina | 11 April 1994 |
152 | Dominica | 19 April 1994 |
153 | Tonga | 27 May 1994 |
154 | South Africa | 12 August 1994[96] |
155 | Tajikistan | 27 August 1994[125] |
156 | Sierra Leone | 12 November 1994[126] |
157 | Vanuatu | 3 July 1995[127] |
158 | Andorra | 26 March 1996 |
159 | Guinea-Bissau | 12 December 1996[128] |
160 | Honduras | 24 September 1997[96] |
161 | Liechtenstein | 14 August 1998[129] |
162 | Guyana | 27 August 1999 |
163 | Angola | 7 August 2001[130] |
164 | East Timor | 2 July 2002[131] |
165 | Republic of the Congo | 2004[132] |
166 | Togo | 2006[133] |
167 | Palau | 6 July 2007 |
168 | Monaco | 17 December 2010[134] |
169 | Dominican Republic | 20 September 2011 |
170 | Montenegro | 21 September 2011 |
171 | Niger | 21 September 2011[135] |
172 | Antigua and Barbuda | 23 September 2011 |
173 | El Salvador | 23 September 2011[55] |
174 | San Marino | 26 September 2011 |
175 | Mauritania | 27 September 2011[136] |
176 | São Tomé and Príncipe | 27 September 2011[55] |
177 | Bhutan | 15 December 2011[96] |
178 | Botswana | 28 March 2012[137] |
179 | Tuvalu | 1 October 2012 |
180 | Haiti | 21 November 2012[96] |
181 | Cape Verde | 5 December 2012[138] |
182 | Nauru | 21 December 2012 |
183 | Kiribati | 8 May 2013 |
184 | Saint Kitts and Nevis | 30 January 2014 |
185 | Belize | 9 July 2014[55] |
186 | Malawi | 29 September 2014[55] |
187 | Central African Republic | 21 September 2016[139] |
188 | Chad | 22 September 2016[140] |
189 | Equatorial Guinea | 22 September 2016[141] |
190 | Barbados | 26 June 2019 |
— | Cook Islands | 12 July 2019 |
— | Niue | 12 July 2019 |
191 | South Sudan | 20 September 2022[142] |
Bilateral relations
[edit]Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
---|---|---|
Brunei | 1 January 1984 | See Brunei–Indonesia relations
|
Cambodia | 13 February 1959 | See Cambodia–Indonesia relations
|
Laos | 30 August 1957 | See Indonesia–Laos relations
Since established diplomatic relations in 1957, both countries enjoy cordial relations. Indonesia has an embassy in Vientiane, while Laos has an embassy in Jakarta. Indonesia supported and welcomed Laotian membership to ASEAN in 1997. Laos and Indonesia agreed to enhance relations to focus on exploring the potential of both countries to co-operate on trade and investment. The two countries expressed a desire to reach further agreements relating to security, tourism, sport, air transport and education.[147] Indonesia through bilateral co-operation assist Laos on capacity building and development in various sectors, through scholarships and trainings for Laotian students.[148] |
Malaysia | 31 August 1957, severed diplomatic relations 15 September 1963, restored 31 August 1967 | See Indonesia–Malaysia relations
|
Myanmar | 27 December 1949 | See Indonesia–Myanmar relations
|
Philippines | 24 November 1949 | See Indonesia–Philippines relations
|
Singapore | 7 September 1967 | See Indonesia–Singapore relations
|
Thailand | 7 March 1950 | See Indonesia–Thailand relations
|
Vietnam | 30 December 1955 | See Indonesia–Vietnam relations
|
Africa
[edit]Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
---|---|---|
Algeria | 1963 | See Algeria–Indonesia relations
|
Angola | 7 August 2001 | See Angola–Indonesia relations
|
Botswana | 28 March 2012 | Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 2012[137] |
Cameroon | 16 June 1992 |
|
Egypt | 1947 | See Egypt–Indonesia relations
|
Ethiopia | 1961 | See Ethiopia–Indonesia relations
|
Kenya | 1979 | See Indonesia–Kenya relations |
Liberia | 1965 | See Indonesia–Liberia relations
The diplomatic relations was officially established in 1965, however it was not until 2013 that both leaders of each countries visited each other's to further the co-operations. |
Libya | 17 October 1991 | See Indonesia–Libya relations
|
Madagascar | 13 December 1974[89] | See Indonesia–Madagascar relations
|
Mauritania | 27 September 2011 |
|
Morocco | 1960 | See Indonesia–Morocco relations
|
Mozambique | 4 October 1991 | See Indonesia–Mozambique relations |
Namibia | 1991 | See Indonesia–Namibia relations |
Nigeria | 5 March 1965 | See Indonesia–Nigeria relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 March 1965[78]
|
Rwanda | 16 January 1984 | See Indonesia–Rwanda relations
|
Senegal | 3 October 1980 | See Indonesia–Senegal relations
|
South Africa | 12 August 1994 | See Indonesia–South Africa relations
|
Sudan | 10 March 1957[61] | See Indonesia-Sudan relations
|
South Sudan | 20 September 2022 | See Indonesia-South Sudan relations |
Tanzania | 25 January 1964 | See Indonesia–Tanzania relations
|
Tunisia | 1960[190] | See Indonesia–Tunisia relations
|
Zimbabwe | 14 August 1986 | See Indonesia–Zimbabwe relations |
Americas
[edit]Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
---|---|---|
Argentina | 30 July 1956 | See Argentina–Indonesia relations
|
Brazil | March 1950 | See Brazil–Indonesia relations
|
Canada | 3 March 1953 | See Canada–Indonesia relations
|
Chile | 29 September 1965 | See Chile–Indonesia relations
|
Colombia | 15 September 1980 | See Colombia–Indonesia relations
|
Cuba | 1960 | See Cuba–Indonesia relations
|
Ecuador | 29 April 1980 | See Ecuador-Indonesia relations
|
Mexico | 1953 | See Indonesia–Mexico relations
Diplomatic relations between both nations were officially established in 1953.
|
Panama | 27 March 1979 | See Indonesia-Panama relations
|
Peru | 12 August 1975[208] | See Indonesia–Peru relations |
Suriname | 24 January 1976 | See Indonesia–Suriname relations
|
United States | 1949[213] | See Indonesia–United States relations
The United States has important economic, commercial, and security interests in Indonesia. It remains a lynchpin of regional security due to its strategic location astride a number of key international maritime straits, particularly the Malacca Strait. Relations between Indonesia and the US are positive and have advanced since the election of President Yudhoyono in October 2004. The US played a role in Indonesian independence in the late 1940s and appreciated Indonesia's role as an anti-communist bulwark during the Cold War. Cooperative relations are maintained today, although no formal security treaties bind the two countries. The United States and Indonesia share the common goal of maintaining peace, security, and stability in the region and engaging in a dialogue on threats to regional security. Cooperation between the US and Indonesia on counter-terrorism has increased steadily since 2002, as terrorist attacks in Bali (October 2002 and October 2005), Jakarta (August 2003 and September 2004) and other regional locations demonstrated the presence of terrorist organisations, principally Jemaah Islamiyah, in Indonesia. The United States has welcomed Indonesia's contributions to regional security, especially its leading role in helping restore democracy in Cambodia and in mediating territorial disputes in the South China Sea. |
Venezuela | 9 October 1959 | See Indonesia–Venezuela relations
|
Asia
[edit]Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
---|---|---|
Afghanistan | 20 May 1950 | See Afghanistan–Indonesia relations
|
Bahrain | 23 June 1984 | See Bahrain–Indonesia relations
|
Bangladesh | 1 May 1972 | See Bangladesh–Indonesia relations
|
China | 13 April 1950 | See China–Indonesia relations
|
Hong Kong (Special Administrative Region of China) | See Hong Kong–Indonesia relations
| |
East Timor | 2 July 2002 | See East Timor–Indonesia relations
|
India | 2 February 1949 | See India–Indonesia relations
|
Iran | 1950 | See Indonesia–Iran relations
|
Iraq | 1950 | See Indonesia–Iraq relations
|
Israel | Informal relations | See Indonesia–Israel relations
|
Japan | 20 January 1958 | See Indonesia–Japan relations
|
Jordan | 1950 | See Indonesia–Jordan relations
|
Kazakhstan | 2 June 1993 | See Indonesia–Kazakhstan relations
|
North Korea | 16 April 1964 | See Indonesia–North Korea relations
Indonesia is one of the very few countries that still maintain cordial relations with North Korea, despite international sanctions and isolation applied upon North Korea concerning its human rights abuses and nuclear missile program. Indonesia has adopted what it calls a "free-and-active" foreign policy, which allows it to be consistent in counting on both Koreas as friends. Both countries share a relationship that dates back to the Sukarno and Kim Il Sung era in the 60s. Indonesia has an embassy in Pyongyang, while North Korea has an embassy in Jakarta. both countries are members of the Non-Aligned Movement. According to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 28% of Indonesians view North Korea's influence positively, with 44% expressing a negative view. This shows a deterioration from previous year's poll where 42% of Indonesians view North Korea's influence positively, with 29% expressing a negative view.[240][241] |
South Korea | 17 September 1973 | See Indonesia–South Korea relations
|
Kuwait | 28 February 1968 | See Indonesia–Kuwait relations
|
Lebanon | 1950 | See Indonesia–Lebanon relations
|
Mongolia | 22 December 1956 | See Indonesia–Mongolia relations
|
Nepal | 25 December 1960 | See Indonesia–Nepal relations
Since diplomatic relations were established in 1960, both countries enjoy friendly and cordial relations, although both parties have not established embassies in each counterparts' capitals. Indonesia only established an honorary consulate in Kathmandu, while its embassy in Dhaka, Bangladesh, is also accredited to Nepal. Nepal on the other hand accredited its embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, also to Indonesia. Both the countries have many cultural proximities and similar view on international issues. Both countries are also partners and founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). |
Oman | 1978 | See Indonesia–Oman relations
|
Pakistan | 17 August 1949 | See Indonesia–Pakistan relations
|
Palestine | 19 October 1989 | See Indonesia–Palestine relations
|
Qatar | 1976 | See Indonesia–Qatar relations
|
Saudi Arabia | 1950 | See Indonesia–Saudi Arabia relations
|
Sri Lanka | 6 August 1952 | See Indonesia–Sri Lanka relations
|
Syria | 1949 | See Indonesia–Syria relations
|
Taiwan | Informal relations | See Indonesia–Taiwan relations
|
Turkey | 1950[257] | See Indonesia–Turkey relations
|
United Arab Emirates | 1976 | See Indonesia–United Arab Emirates relations
|
Uzbekistan | 23 June 1992 | See Indonesia–Uzbekistan relations
|
Yemen | 21 April 1962 | See Indonesia–Yemen relations
|
Europe
[edit]Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
---|---|---|
Armenia | 22 September 1992 | See Armenia–Indonesia relations |
Austria | 1954 | See Austria–Indonesia relations
|
Azerbaijan | 24 September 1992[267] | See Azerbaijan–Indonesia relations
|
Belgium | 1949 | See Belgium-Indonesia relations
|
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 11 April 1994 | See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Indonesia relations
|
Bulgaria | 21 September 1956 | See Bulgaria–Indonesia relations |
Croatia | 3 September 1992 | See Croatia-Indonesia relations
|
Cyprus | 4 December 1987 | See Cyprus–Indonesia relations |
Czechia | 1950 | See Czechia–Indonesia relations |
Denmark | 15 February 1950[275][276] | See Denmark–Indonesia relations
|
Finland | 6 September 1954 | See Finland-Indonesia relations
|
France | 2 August 1950 | See France–Indonesia relations
|
Georgia | 25 January 1993 | See Georgia–Indonesia relations
|
Germany | 25 June 1952[279] | See Germany–Indonesia relations
|
Greece | 23 February 1958 | See Greece–Indonesia relations
|
Holy See (Vatican City) | 13 March 1950 | See Holy See–Indonesia relations
|
Hungary | 1955 | See Hungary–Indonesia relations |
Iceland | 13 June 1983 | See Iceland–Indonesia relations |
Ireland | 4 September 1984[294] | See Indonesia–Ireland relations |
Italy | 29 December 1949[36] | See Indonesia–Italy relations
|
Kosovo | No formal diplomatic relations | See Indonesia's reaction to the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence
Indonesia's reaction to Kosovo's independence has been mixed. Indonesia does not recognize Kosovo's membership in some international organizations, including the World Bank.[298] |
Monaco | 17 December 2010 | See Indonesia–Monaco relations
|
Netherlands | October 1949 | See Indonesia–Netherlands relations |
Norway | 25 January 1950 | See Indonesia-Norway relations |
Poland | 19 September 1955 | See Indonesia-Poland relations |
Portugal | 4 January 1965[305] | See Indonesia–Portugal relations
In 1999, Indonesia and Portugal restored diplomatic relations, which were broken off following the Indonesian invasion of East Timor in 1975. |
Romania | 20 February 1950 | See Indonesia-Romania relations |
Russia | February 1950 | See Indonesia–Russia relations
|
Serbia | 1954 | See Indonesia–Serbia relations
Serbia has very close relations with Indonesia, especially within the fields of trade, culture and tourism. Indonesia has also voiced support for Serbia's territorial integrity over the Kosovo issue.[311] |
Slovakia | 1 January 1993 |
|
Spain | February 1958[313] | See Indonesia–Spain relations
|
Sweden | 1960 | See Indonesia–Sweden relations
|
Switzerland | 2 November 1951[47][48] | See Indonesia–Switzerland relations
|
Ukraine | 11 June 1992[319] | See Indonesia-Ukraine relations
|
United Kingdom | 1949 | See Indonesia–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom and Indonesia have maintained strong links since formal relations were established in 1949.[326] Indonesia has an embassy in London,[327] the UK has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in Denpasar.[328] The Culture and Tourism Ministry of Indonesia launched a campaign to boost the number of tourists from the UK entering Indonesia.[327] In 2009, 160,000 British tourists visited Indonesia, the aim of the campaign was to boost this number to 200,000.[327] In 2006 former British prime-minister Tony Blair met with Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono where they agreed upon "the establishment of a regular Indonesia-UK Partnership Forum to be chaired by the Foreign Ministers, to promote strategic dialogue on bilateral, multilateral and global issues".[326] The first Indonesia-UK forum was held in 2007 and was chaired by British foreign minister Margaret Beckett and Indonesian foreign minister Hassan Wirajuda.[326] In March 2010 members of the House of Lords praised Indonesia for its progress in democratising society, media freedom and environmental protection.[329] In a meeting with Indonesian MP Hayono Isman, the Lords stated that they wanted to improve the relationship between the two countries.[329] |
Oceania
[edit]Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
---|---|---|
Australia | 27 December 1949 | See Australia–Indonesia relations
Since Indonesian independence, the two countries have maintained mutual diplomatic relations, formalised co-operation (especially in the fields of fisheries conservation, law enforcement, and justice co-operation), a measure of security co-operation, broadening treaty relationships, co-membership of regional forums, and co-participation in several multilateral Treaties of significance. Trade between the two countries has grown over the years. Recent years have seen a deepening of Australia's aid commitment to Indonesia, and Australia has become a popular venue for Indonesian students.[330] In 2008–09, Indonesia is the largest recipient of Australian aid at a value of AUD462 million.[331] Indonesia has an embassy in Canberra and consulates general in Melbourne, Perth and Sydney, While Australia has an embassy in Jakarta and consulates in Medan, Makassar, Surabaya and Denpasar. |
Fiji | 1974 | See Indonesia–Fiji relations
|
New Zealand | 28 June 1958 | See Indonesia–New Zealand relations
Having common interests as democracies and neighbours in the Asia-Pacific region, New Zealand and Indonesia are viewed as natural partners.[332] Both countries are members of APEC. Indonesia and New Zealand officially established diplomatic relations in 1958, the diplomatic and economic ties have grown stronger ever since. New Zealand has an embassy in Jakarta and Indonesia has an embassy in Wellington. Indonesia's commodity exports to New Zealand consist mainly of energy products and minerals as well as lumber and agriculture, while New Zealand's commodity exports to Indonesia mainly consist of dairy products and meats, such as beef, milk, and cheese. |
Cook Islands and Niue (States in free association within New Zealand) | 13 July 2019 | See Political status of the Cook Islands and Niue
Indonesia established diplomatic relations with both the Cook Islands and Niue on 13 July 2019 as a move to strengthen its ties with the Pacific Islands region.[333][334] |
Palau | 6 July 2007 |
|
Papua New Guinea | 16 September 1975 | See Indonesia–Papua New Guinea relations
Indonesia shares a 760-kilometre (470 mi) border with Papua New Guinea through its Papua, Highland Papua and South Papua provinces. The common border has raised tensions and ongoing diplomatic issues[which?] over many decades.[336]
|
Solomon Islands | 28 July 1983 | See Indonesia–Solomon Islands relations
|
Vanuatu | 3 July 1995 |
|
International organisation participation
[edit]See also
[edit]- Indonesia–United States relations
- Australia–Indonesia relations
- Indonesia–Russia relations
- China–Indonesia relations
- Indonesia–Japan relations
- Indonesia–Saudi Arabia relations
- European Union–Indonesia relations
- List of diplomatic missions in Indonesia
- List of diplomatic missions of Indonesia
- List of diplomatic missions in Jakarta
- List of Indonesian Ambassadors to Australia
- List of Indonesian Ambassadors to the United Kingdom
Notes
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- ^ Fels, Enrico (2017). Shifting Power in Asia-Pacific? The Rise of China, Sino-US Competition and Regional Middle Power Allegiance. Springer. pp. 697–747. ISBN 978-3-319-45689-8. Archived from the original on 2 December 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
- ^ Rizal Sukma, "The evolution of Indonesia's foreign policy: an Indonesian view." Asian Survey 35.3 (1995): 304–315 online Archived 6 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ John Saltford, "United Nations involvement with the act of self-determination in West Irian (Indonesian West New Guinea) 1968 to 1969." Indonesia 69 (2000): 71–92. online Archived 17 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lorenz M. Lüthi, "The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War, 1961–1973." Journal of Cold War Studies 18.4 (2016): 98–147 online Archived 18 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Dewi Fortuna Anwar, Indonesia in ASEAN : foreign policy and regionalism (1994)
- ^ Dewi Fortuna Anwar, "Reinvention in Indonesia's foreign policy strategy." East Asia Forum Quarterly 5#4 (2013) online.
- ^ Terence Lee, "The armed forces and transitions from authoritarian rule: Explaining the role of the military in 1986 Philippines and 1998 Indonesia." Comparative Political Studies 42.5 (2009): 640–669. online[permanent dead link ]
- ^ James Cotton, East Timor, Australia and regional order: intervention and its aftermath in Southeast Asia (2004) online Archived 15 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ McRae, Dave (2019). "Indonesia's South China Sea Diplomacy: A Foreign Policy Illiberal Turn?". Journal of Contemporary Asia: 1–21. doi:10.1080/00472336.2019.1601240. S2CID 159426143. Archived from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
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- ^ Lili Yan et al. The Indonesian Economy: Trade and Industrial Policies (Taylor & Francis, 2018)
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- ^ Dewi Fortuna Anwar (2010), "The Impact of Domestic and Asian Regional Changes on Indonesian Foreign Policy", Southeast Asian Affairs, 2010: 132, JSTOR 41418562
- ^ Roberts, Christopher B. (2015). Christopher B. Roberts; Ahmad D. Habir; Leonard C. Sebastian (eds.). Indonesia's Ascent: Power, Leadership, and the Regional Order, Critical Studies of the Asia-Pacific. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 259–260. ISBN 978-1-137-39741-6. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
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{{cite journal}}
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- ^ "Menlu Retno sambut rencana pembukaan Kedubes Vanuatu di Indonesia". Antara (in Indonesian). 16 June 2023. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
Further reading
[edit]- Anwar, Dewi Fortuna. Indonesia in ASEAN : foreign policy and regionalism (1994) online
- Anwar, Dewi Fortuna. "Reinvention in Indonesia's foreign policy strategy." East Asia Forum Quarterly 5#4 (2013) online.
- Aslan, Hugh R. Me. "Contemporary United States Foreign Policy towards Indonesia" (U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 2004)online
- Cotton, James. East Timor, Australia and regional order: intervention and its aftermath in Southeast Asia (2004) online Archived 15 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
- Galamas, Francisco. "Terrorism in Indonesia: an overview." Research Papers 4.10 (2015) online[permanent dead link ].
- Gardner, Paul F., Shared Hopes, Separate Fears: Fifty Years of U.S.-Indonesia Relations, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press (1997).
- Glasius, Marlies. Foreign policy on human rights : its influence on Indonesia under Soeharto (1999) online
- Hatta, Mohammad (1953). "Indonesia's Foreign Policy". Foreign Policy. 31 (2): 441–452. doi:10.2307/20030977. JSTOR 20030977. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024 – via JSTOR.
- He, Kai. "Indonesia's foreign policy after Soeharto: international pressure, democratization, and policy change." International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 8.1 (2007): 47–72. online
- Huijgh, Ellen. "The Public Diplomacy of Emerging Powers Part 2: The Case of Indonesia." in CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy (2016). online Archived 14 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine
- Lee, Terence. "The armed forces and transitions from authoritarian rule: Explaining the role of the military in 1986 Philippines and 1998 Indonesia." Comparative Political Studies 42.5 (2009): 640–669. online[permanent dead link ]
- Leifer, Michael. Indonesia's Foreign Policy (1983)
- McRae, Fave. "Indonesia's South China Sea diplomacy: A foreign policy illiberal turn?" Journal of Contemporary Asia 49.5 (2019): 759–779 online Archived 17 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
- Pitsuwan, Fuadi (2014). "Smart Power Strategy: Recalibrating Indonesian Foreign Policy". Asian Politics & Policy. 6 (2): 237–266. doi:10.1111/aspp.12107.
- Ricklefs, M. C. A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1200 (2001) online
- Saltford, John. "United Nations involvement with the act of self-determination in West Irian (Indonesian West New Guinea) 1968 to 1969." Indonesia 69 (2000): 71–92. online Archived 17 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- Scott, David. "Indonesia grapples with the Indo-Pacific: Outreach, strategic discourse, and diplomacy." Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 38.2 (2019): 194–217. online Archived 17 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- Shekhar, Vibhanshu. Indonesia's Foreign Policy and Grand Strategy in the 21st Century: Rise of an Indo-Pacific Power (2018)
- Sukma, Rizal. "The evolution of Indonesia's foreign policy: an Indonesian view." Asian Survey 35.3 (1995): 304–315. online Archived 6 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- Sukma, Rizal. "Soft power and public diplomacy: The case of Indonesia." in Public diplomacy and soft power in East Asia (2011): 91–115.
- Weinstein, Franklin B. Indonesia Abandons Confrontation: An Inquiry Into the Functions of Indonesian Foreign Policy (2009)
External links
[edit]- Politics, Public Opinion, and the U.S.-Indonesian Comprehensive Partnership Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (NBR Special Report, December 2010)